Stock Trading Platform

Every order is a finite state machine with defined transitions. Any transition not in the map is rejected. State is derived from an append-only event log, not mutable status columns.

Event Sourcing — How State Is Stored

We never do UPDATE orders SET status = 'FILLED'. Instead, every state change is an immutable event appended to the order_events table. Current status is derived from the latest event. This gives FINRA-compliant audit trails for free.

INSERT INTO order_events (order_id, event_type, fill_qty, fill_price, venue, ts)
VALUES ('ord_abc', 'PARTIAL_FILL', 4, 187.30, 'XNYS', NOW());

-- Performance optimization: materialized status column
-- Updated in same transaction as event insert
BEGIN;
  INSERT INTO order_events (...) VALUES (...);
  UPDATE orders SET status = 'FILLED', filled_qty = 10,
    avg_fill_price = 187.42, updated_at = NOW()
  WHERE id = 'ord_abc';
COMMIT;
-- Event log is source of truth; status column is read optimization

The Exactly-Once Problem — Three Boundaries

Partial Fills

A limit order for 100 shares may fill as 30 + 20 + 50 across different venues. Each partial fill triggers an atomic update: insert event, update position with weighted average cost, release proportional reserve, debit actual fill cost.

-- Weighted average cost update on each fill
new_avg_cost = (old_avg_cost × old_qty + fill_price × fill_qty) / (old_qty + fill_qty)

-- Reserve release per partial fill
pro_rata_reserve = (fill_qty / order_qty) × total_reserved
released = pro_rata_reserve - actual_fill_cost
-- Net: user gets back excess reserve as buying power

Buying power looks like a simple number but is a real-time derived state that depends on 6 different data sources: settled cash, unsettled cash (T+1), instant deposit credit, margin allowance, pending order reserves, and regulatory holds.

buying_power = settled_cash
             + unsettled_cash        // from recent sells, T+1 settlement
             + instant_deposit_credit // ACH pending, capped by tier
             + margin_allowance       // if margin account, 2x leverage
             - reserved_for_pending   // buy orders lock funds
             - maintenance_minimum    // margin maintenance requirement
             - regulatory_holds       // PDT restrictions, GFV limits

T+1 Settlement

Sell AAPL on Monday → cash is "unsettled" until Tuesday. Unsettled cash CAN buy stocks but CANNOT be withdrawn. Buying with unsettled funds then selling before settlement = Good Faith Violation. Three GFVs in 12 months restricts account to settled-cash trading for 90 days.

The ACH Bounce Nightmare

Event-Driven Materialized View

Instead of recomputing from scratch, maintain a running snapshot updated incrementally on every relevant event (order created, filled, cancelled, ACH status change, settlement, price tick for margin). Kafka Streams consumer with RocksDB state store writes to Redis for the fast-path check. Order Service does pessimistic revalidation in PostgreSQL inside the transaction.

// Fast path (optimistic, no DB lock)
bp = redis.get("bp:" + userId)
if (bp < orderAmount) → reject immediately (no DB hit needed)

// Slow path (inside transaction, authoritative)
BEGIN;
  SELECT buying_power FROM accounts WHERE id = $1 FOR UPDATE;
  -- revalidate against actual data, then proceed
COMMIT;

The actual scalability bottleneck. 100K-500K ticks/sec inbound from exchanges, fan out to 2M concurrent subscribers with different watchlists.

Inbound: Exchange Feed Processing

CTA (NYSE-listed) and UTP (NASDAQ-listed) feeds deliver binary market data. The ingestion service parses at < 5μs per message, maintains an in-memory NBBO book per symbol, and only publishes downstream when the NBBO actually changes — cutting downstream load by ~80%.

// NBBO change filter — critical optimization
On each quote update from exchange:
  Update bid/ask from reporting exchange
  Recompute best_bid = max(all_exchange_bids)
  Recompute best_ask = min(all_exchange_asks)
  If NBBO changed → PUBLISH market:{symbol} to Redis
  If NBBO unchanged → skip (saves 80% of publishes)

Fan-Out: Redis Pub/Sub → WebSocket Servers

Each WebSocket server subscribes to Redis channels only for symbols its connected users watch. When AAPL ticks, Redis sends one message to each subscribing server, which then multicasts to all local connections watching AAPL.

WebSocket Server Internal Fan-Out

Hot path: Redis delivers one AAPL message → server looks up HashMap<Symbol, Set<ConnectionId>> → maybe 15,000 connections need it → serialize once → write binary frame to 15,000 TCP buffers. Server-side batching at 50ms windows deduplicates multiple ticks for the same symbol and uses writev() gathering writes to reduce syscalls.

When a user submits "BUY 100 AAPL MARKET," the order could go to 13 US exchanges, multiple market makers (Citadel, Virtu), or dark pools. The Smart Order Router (SOR) selects the best venue.

Reg NMS — The Legal Constraint

Rule 611 (Order Protection Rule): you cannot execute a trade at a price inferior to the National Best Bid/Offer (NBBO). If NYSE offers AAPL at $187.42 and you route to Citadel who fills at $187.45, you violated Reg NMS. The SOR must compare all venue quotes against the NBBO before routing.

SOR Decision Engine

Scoring per venue (weighted):
  Price improvement:     40% — filling below NBBO saves customer money
  Historical fill rate:  25% — what % of orders at this venue actually fill?
  Speed:                 15% — how fast does the venue respond?
  PFOF rate:             10% — payment for order flow revenue
  Stability:             10% — reject rate penalty

PFOF Economics — How Robinhood Makes Money

The safety net that catches every edge case the real-time systems miss. Runs daily after market close.

End-of-Day Reconciliation (5:00 PM ET)

Step 1: Pull execution reports from all brokers (FIX drop copy / API)
Step 2: Pull internal order_events for the day
Step 3: Match by ClOrdID
Step 4: Compare each pair — qty, price, venue, status
Step 5: Classify discrepancies:
  Cat A — Missing internally (most critical): reconstruct from exchange data
  Cat B — Missing at exchange (suspicious): quarantine, investigate
  Cat C — Price/qty mismatch: auto-correct if < $0.01, else manual review
  Cat D — Status mismatch: update our status, release held reserves
Step 6: Report — typically 99.999% perfect match rate

Corporate Actions

Stock splits, reverse splits, dividends, mergers, and spinoffs change positions overnight without user action. A corporate actions processor runs nightly: cancels pending orders for affected symbols, adjusts position quantities and cost basis, creates audit events, and notifies users. Stock splits also require retroactive adjustment of historical price data and portfolio snapshots.

Memory Per Connection

TCP socket buffers:     ~32 KB (tuned down from 128KB default)
TLS session state:      ~4 KB
WebSocket frame buffer: ~8 KB
Application state:      ~3 KB (metadata + subscriptions + ring buffer)
─────────────────────────────────
Total: ~47 KB per connection (tuned) to ~160 KB (default)
Per server (50K conns): 8-16 GB RAM for connections alone

L4 vs L7 Load Balancing

Reconnection Storm Mitigation

When WS-17 crashes, 50K clients reconnect simultaneously. Without mitigation: thundering herd. Solution: client jitter (random 0-10s delay), server-side rate limiting (max 500 new connections/sec), LB health checks (overloaded servers marked unhealthy). Graceful deploys send {"action":"reconnect","delay_ms":random(0,30000)} before draining.

Order Event Routing to Correct Server

Connection registry pattern: on connect, HSET ws:connections {user_id} {server_id} in Redis. Order event consumer does one Redis lookup per fill to route to the correct WebSocket server via internal channel.

Pre-Trade Risk Pipeline (7 checks, < 20ms)

Real-Time Margin Monitoring

Continuously compute margin_ratio = equity / maintenance_requirement for every margin account. Thresholds: >2.0 healthy, 1.5-2.0 warning (push notification), 1.0-1.5 margin call (restrict buying, 2-5 day grace), <1.0 forced liquidation (auto-sell most liquid positions first), <0.75 emergency liquidation (sell everything). Watch list optimization: only accounts near thresholds get per-tick recalculation; healthy accounts batch-checked every 30 seconds.

Exchange Circuit Breakers (LULD)

Stock moves >5% in 5 min → 5-min halt. Market-wide S&P 500 drops: -7% = 15-min halt, -13% = 15-min halt, -20% = market closes for the day. System must detect halt messages, stop accepting orders for halted symbols, and handle the flood when trading resumes.

The portfolio value at any point = cash_at_t + Σ(shares_held_at_t × price_at_t). For 25M users across years of history, this is a massive data problem.

Intraday (1-Day View)

Snapshot + delta + live prices. Start-of-day snapshot (precomputed at market open) + position changes from trades today + current prices = equity curve. 78 data points (5-min intervals across 6.5 hrs). Computed on-demand per request in ~5ms — no need to precompute for all users.

Historical (1-Week to All-Time)

Nightly batch job at 1:00 AM: for each user with positions, compute close-of-day equity = cash + Σ(qty × closing_price). Store in portfolio_snapshots table (user_id, date, equity). 25M users × 252 days × 100 bytes = 630 GB/year. Partition by date, archive >2 years to Parquet on S3.

Corporate Action Adjustments

Stock splits make historical snapshots wrong. When AAPL splits 4:1, historical price data is retroactively adjusted (divided by 4). Affected portfolio snapshots must be recomputed using split-adjusted prices — a batch job triggered by the corporate actions processor.

Six-Layer Idempotency Map

Transactional Outbox Pattern

BEGIN;
  INSERT INTO orders (...) VALUES (...);
  INSERT INTO order_events (...) VALUES (...);
  INSERT INTO outbox (topic, key, payload) VALUES ('orders.submitted', user_id, order_json);
COMMIT;
-- Outbox relay polls, publishes to Kafka, marks published=true
-- Alternative: Debezium CDC reads WAL, auto-publishes (no outbox table)

Poison Pill Handling

Unprocessable messages in Kafka (malformed, references deleted user) → Dead Letter Queue. Transient errors (DB timeout): don't commit offset, retry with backoff. Non-retriable errors: send to DLQ, commit offset to unblock partition, alert ops team.

SEC Rule 17a-4

Every broker-dealer must preserve all order records, execution records, customer communications, and account records for minimum 6 years (first 2 easily accessible). Format: WORM (Write Once, Read Many) — cannot be altered or deleted. Must be producible within 24 hours of SEC/FINRA request.

Compliance Event Bus

Every service → Kafka audit.* topics → Consumers:
  ├─ S3 (WORM, Object Lock COMPLIANCE mode, 7-year retention, Parquet)
  ├─ Elasticsearch (2-year hot store, searchable within seconds)
  ├─ Compliance Dashboard (real-time monitoring)
  └─ Third-Party Archive (FINRA-approved vendor)

Daily volume: 4M orders × 5 events × 1KB = 20 GB/day raw → ~4 GB compressed

Real-Time Surveillance

Apache Flink streaming application consumes from audit.orders, maintains sliding windows per user per symbol, and detects:

Required Filings

Rule 606 (quarterly): where orders were routed, PFOF received. CAT (daily): every order lifecycle event to FINRA. SAR (as needed): suspicious activity within 30 days of detection to FinCEN.